Grade 12 Chemistry

Examine the evolution of atomic models from Dalton to Rutherford, analyzing experimental evidence that led to each refinement.

Explore the Bohr model, its postulates, and how it explained atomic spectra, introducing the concept of quantized energy levels.

Investigate the wave-particle duality of matter and light, leading to the introduction of quantum numbers and atomic orbitals.

Apply Aufbau principle, Hund's rule, and Pauli exclusion principle to write electron configurations and draw orbital diagrams.

Relate electron configurations to periodic trends in atomic radius, ionization energy, and electron affinity.

Explore periodic trends in electronegativity, metallic character, and reactivity, linking them to chemical bonding.

Draw Lewis structures for molecules and polyatomic ions, including resonance structures, and calculate formal charges.

Apply VSEPR theory to predict the electron domain and molecular geometries of molecules, including bond angles.

Explore the concept of orbital hybridization (sp, sp2, sp3, sp3d, sp3d2) to explain observed molecular geometries.

Determine the polarity of molecules based on bond polarity and molecular geometry, relating it to macroscopic properties.

Identify and describe the different types of intermolecular forces (London dispersion, dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding).

Relate the strength of intermolecular forces to macroscopic physical properties like boiling point, melting point, and viscosity.

Investigate the principle of 'like dissolves like' and its connection to intermolecular forces in solution formation.

Define energy, heat, and work in the context of chemical systems and apply the First Law of Thermodynamics.

Calculate enthalpy changes for reactions using standard enthalpies of formation and thermochemical equations.

Perform calorimetry calculations to determine specific heat capacity, heat of reaction, and heat of solution.

Apply Hess's Law to calculate enthalpy changes for reactions that cannot be directly measured.

Define reaction rate and explore methods for measuring it, including concentration changes over time.

Investigate how concentration, temperature, surface area, and catalysts influence reaction rates.

Apply collision theory to explain reaction rates, focusing on activation energy and molecular orientation.

Determine rate laws from experimental data and identify the order of reaction with respect to each reactant.

Use integrated rate laws to calculate concentrations at different times and determine reaction half-life.

Propose and evaluate reaction mechanisms, identifying elementary steps, intermediates, and catalysts.

Identify the rate-determining step in a reaction mechanism and explain its influence on the overall rate law.

Explore the role of catalysts in reaction mechanisms, differentiating between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis.

Investigate the principles of enzyme catalysis, including enzyme-substrate interactions and factors affecting enzyme activity.

Define reversible reactions and the concept of dynamic equilibrium where forward and reverse rates are equal.

Derive and calculate the equilibrium constant (Kc and Kp) for homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria.

Calculate the reaction quotient (Q) and use it to predict the direction a system will shift to reach equilibrium.

Use ICE (Initial, Change, Equilibrium) tables to solve for equilibrium concentrations or the equilibrium constant.

Apply Le Chatelier's Principle to predict the shift in equilibrium caused by changes in reactant or product concentrations.

Predict equilibrium shifts in gaseous systems due to changes in pressure or volume.

Analyze the effect of temperature changes and catalysts on equilibrium position and the equilibrium constant.

Define the solubility product constant (Ksp) and write Ksp expressions for sparingly soluble ionic compounds.

Calculate Ksp from molar solubility and vice versa, and predict precipitation using the ion product (Qsp).

Investigate the common ion effect and its application in selective precipitation for separating ions.

Explore the formation of complex ions and their impact on solubility and other chemical equilibria.

Introduce the concept of entropy and its role in determining the spontaneity of chemical reactions.

Relate Gibbs free energy to spontaneity and the equilibrium constant, predicting reaction direction.

Compare and contrast the Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases.

Relate acid and base strength to their ionization constants (Ka and Kb) and molecular structure.

Investigate the autoionization of water, the ion product constant (Kw), and the pH/pOH scales.

Perform equilibrium calculations for weak acids and bases, including percent ionization.

Predict the pH of salt solutions based on the hydrolysis of their constituent ions.

Introduce the Lewis definition of acids and bases, focusing on electron pair donation and acceptance.

Analyze titration curves for strong acid-strong base, weak acid-strong base, and strong acid-weak base titrations.

Define buffer solutions and explain how they resist changes in pH upon addition of acid or base.

Apply the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation to calculate the pH of buffer solutions and design buffers.

Review oxidation states, balancing redox reactions, and identifying oxidizing and reducing agents.

Construct galvanic (voltaic) cells, identify anode/cathode, and calculate standard cell potentials.

Apply the Nernst equation to calculate cell potentials under non-standard conditions and relate to concentration cells.

Investigate electrolytic cells, predict products of electrolysis, and perform stoichiometric calculations.

Explore real-world applications of electrochemistry, including batteries, corrosion, and electroplating.