Active learning ideas
Empiricist Responses to Scepticism examines how thinkers like Locke, Berkeley, and Russell attempted to bridge the gap between our perceptions and the external world. Unlike Descartes, who sought absolute certainty, many empiricists shifted the goalposts toward 'practical' certainty or 'the best explanation'. Students will evaluate Locke's appeal to the 'involuntary' nature of our perceptions and Russell's argument that the existence of an external world is the most simple and powerful hypothesis.
Activity 01
Students examine Locke's two 'proofs': the fact that we cannot choose our perceptions (involuntariness) and the way different senses confirm each other (coherence). They must find a 'sceptical' counter-argument for each.
How does Locke justify belief in the external world?
Activity 02
One group argues that the 'External World' is the best explanation for our experiences. The other group argues that 'The Matrix' or 'The Evil Demon' is just as simple and logical. A 'judge' decides which hypothesis wins.
Does Russell's 'best hypothesis' defeat scepticism?
Activity 03
Students discuss: 'If Berkeley says there is no matter, does he even have a problem with scepticism?' They share how Idealism might actually be the ultimate 'shield' against the sceptic.
Is empiricism more resilient to scepticism than rationalism?
A few notes on teaching this unit
Watch Out for These Misconceptions
Students often think Locke 'proved' the external world exists.
Locke admitted he couldn't provide a mathematical proof; he argued for 'sensitive knowledge', which is certain enough for our needs. Active learning helps students distinguish between 'absolute proof' and 'sufficient evidence'.
Students think Russell's 'Best Hypothesis' is a weak argument because it's not 100% certain.
In philosophy, abductive reasoning is a powerful tool. Peer discussion about how scientists use the 'best explanation' (like gravity) helps students see that Russell is using a scientific standard of proof rather than a Cartesian one.
Methods used in this brief
Philosophical Scepticism
An introduction to local and global scepticism. Students will differentiate between ordinary doubt and philosophical doubt.
8 methodologies
Descartes' Method of Doubt
Students analyse Descartes' three waves of doubt, including the evil demon hypothesis. They will evaluate the cogito as a foundational truth.
8 methodologies