US History · 11th Grade

Active learning ideas

Annexation of the Philippines & Anti-Imperialism

Active learning works well for this topic because students often absorb the celebratory narrative of the Spanish-American War without examining its violent consequences. By engaging with debates, primary sources, and public opinion, students confront the human and moral costs of imperialism, which textbooks sometimes overlook.

• Common Core State Standards
• C3: D2.His.1.9-12
• C3: D2.Geo.9.9-12

• 35–50 min
• Pairs → Whole Class
• 4 activities

Activity 01

• Structured Academic Controversy
• 50 min · Pairs

Structured Academic Controversy: Should the U.S. Have Annexed the Philippines?

Pairs take assigned positions, either imperialist or anti-imperialist, using primary source excerpts from Lodge, Mahan, Twain, and Filipino leader Emilio Aguinaldo. After presenting both sides, pairs drop their assigned positions and work toward a reasoned consensus statement, distinguishing political, economic, and ethical arguments.

Analyze the causes and brutality of the Philippine-American War.

Facilitation Tip

During the Structured Academic Controversy, assign roles (e.g., constitutional scholar, military strategist) to push students beyond rehearsed arguments and into deeper analysis of annexation.

What to look for

Divide students into two groups: 'Imperialists' and 'Anti-Imperialists.' Provide each group with a set of primary source excerpts representing their viewpoint. Ask them to prepare opening statements and rebuttals for a class debate on the annexation of the Philippines.

• Analyze
• Evaluate
• Create
• Social Awareness
• Relationship Skills

Activity 02

• Mock Trial
• 35 min · Small Groups

Primary Source Analysis: Mark Twain's War Writings

Students read Twain's 'To the Person Sitting in Darkness,' analyzing his rhetorical strategies and specific evidence against annexation. Discussion focuses on how literary figures shape public opinion and why Twain's anti-imperialist writing was suppressed during his lifetime and excluded from his authorized biography.

Compare the arguments of imperialists and anti-imperialists regarding the annexation of the Philippines.

Facilitation Tip

When analyzing Mark Twain’s writings, ask students to highlight contradictions between his earlier pro-war statements and later anti-imperialist views to reveal the complexity of his stance.

What to look for

Present students with a short primary source quote from either an imperialist or an anti-imperialist. Ask them to identify the author's likely stance and provide one piece of textual evidence to support their conclusion.

• Analyze
• Evaluate
• Create
• Decision-Making
• Social Awareness

Activity 03

• Case Study Analysis
• 40 min · Small Groups

Case Study Analysis: Senate Investigation of the Philippine War

Present students with documented accounts of U.S. Army conduct in the Philippines, including the Senate investigation testimony of 1902. Students evaluate the primary source evidence and then connect the tactics used in the Philippines to those used in the Indian Wars a generation earlier, identifying continuities in U.S. military policy toward civilian populations.

Evaluate the long-term consequences of American imperialism for both the U.S. and its new territories.

Facilitation Tip

For the Senate Investigation Case Study, have students compare testimonies from military leaders and Filipino civilians to contrast official accounts with lived experiences.

What to look for

On an index card, have students write one sentence summarizing the main argument of the Anti-Imperialist League and one sentence explaining why the Philippine-American War was particularly brutal for the Filipino population.

• Analyze
• Evaluate
• Create
• Decision-Making
• Self-Management

Activity 04

• Gallery Walk
• 35 min · Pairs

Gallery Walk: Editorial Cartoons and Public Opinion

Post a selection of pro-imperialist and anti-imperialist editorial cartoons from 1898 to 1902. Students annotate each for its argument and visual rhetoric, then map the full set onto an opinion spectrum. Discussion examines how each side framed Filipino people and what assumptions underlie both imperialist and anti-imperialist positions.

Analyze the causes and brutality of the Philippine-American War.

What to look for

Divide students into two groups: 'Imperialists' and 'Anti-Imperialists.' Provide each group with a set of primary source excerpts representing their viewpoint. Ask them to prepare opening statements and rebuttals for a class debate on the annexation of the Philippines.

• Understand
• Apply
• Analyze
• Create
• Relationship Skills
• Social Awareness

A few notes on teaching this unit

Experienced teachers approach this topic by framing it as a debate about power and ethics rather than a simple expansion of democracy. Avoid presenting the Philippine-American War as a footnote; instead, center it as the defining conflict of U.S. imperialism. Research shows that students engage more deeply when they see anti-imperialists as principled critics rather than isolationists, so emphasize the diversity of their arguments.

Successful learning looks like students analyzing conflicting viewpoints, questioning assumptions, and recognizing the complexity of imperialism rather than accepting simplified narratives. They should also connect historical events to modern discussions about foreign policy and human rights.

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Watch Out for These Misconceptions

• During the Structured Academic Controversy, students may assume the Spanish-American War was a straightforward victory that expanded American democracy.

  During the Structured Academic Controversy, direct students to read casualty data from the Philippine-American War and Senate testimony about civilian deaths to challenge the celebratory framing and focus on the human costs of annexation.

• During the Primary Source Analysis of Mark Twain’s writings, students may label all anti-imperialists as isolationists who opposed any overseas engagement.

  During the Primary Source Analysis, have students categorize Twain’s arguments into constitutional, moral, and economic concerns to show that anti-imperialists supported selective engagement, not total isolation.

• During the Gallery Walk of editorial cartoons, students may assume Filipino people simply accepted American rule after centuries of Spanish colonialism.

  During the Gallery Walk, point students to cartoons depicting Filipino resistance or declarations of independence to highlight that annexation was met with organized opposition, not passive acceptance.

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Methods used in this brief

• Structured Academic Controversy
• Mock Trial
• Case Study Analysis
• Gallery Walk