Geography · 9th Grade · Political Geography and Conflict · Weeks 19-27

Terrorism and Non-State Actors

Exploring how groups without a formal state influence global geography and security.

• Common Core State Standards
• C3: D2.Geo.11.9-12
• C3: D2.Civ.14.9-12

About This Topic

Non-state actors , organizations that operate across or within states without being states themselves , have become one of the defining challenges in 21st-century geopolitics. The category includes terrorist organizations, transnational criminal networks, private military companies, and international NGOs. In the context of political geography, the central question is how entities without formal territory can project power and reshape geographic realities that states struggle to control.

For US 9th graders, this topic connects to recent history students have lived through: post-9/11 security policies, the territorial rise and fall of ISIS, the long US presence in Afghanistan, and ongoing debates about drone warfare and targeted operations. Teachers should handle this material with care, avoiding any conflation of religion, ethnicity, or nationality with terrorism, and grounding discussion in geographic data rather than media narratives.

The Westphalian system , the 1648 principle that sovereign states are the fundamental units of international relations , assumes clear territorial control and recognized governments. Non-state actors challenge this assumption systematically, requiring students to think geographically about power, violence, and sovereignty. Active learning structures that use data analysis help students maintain analytical distance from emotionally charged subject matter while building genuine geographic insight.

Key Questions

1. Analyze how the geography of terrorism has changed in the age of social media.
2. Explain how non-state actors challenge the traditional Westphalian state system.
3. Predict the geographic consequences of the 'War on Terror'.

Learning Objectives

• Analyze the spatial distribution of non-state actor activities using geographic data sets.
• Explain how non-state actors challenge the territorial integrity and sovereignty of Westphalian states.
• Evaluate the geographic consequences of counter-terrorism strategies on civilian populations and state borders.
• Compare the operational geographies of different types of non-state actors, such as terrorist groups and transnational criminal organizations.

Before You Start

Foundations of Political Geography

Why: Students need a basic understanding of states, borders, and territory to grasp how non-state actors challenge these concepts.

Introduction to International Relations

Why: Understanding the basic principles of how states interact is necessary before exploring actors that operate outside or across these traditional state-based systems.

Key Vocabulary

Non-state actor	An organization that has significant political influence but is not allied with or part of any particular country.
Westphalian system	A model of international relations based on the principle of sovereign states with defined territories and exclusive control within their borders.
Sovereignty	The supreme authority within a territory, meaning a state has the exclusive right to govern itself without external interference.
Territorial integrity	The principle that the boundaries of a state should not be violated or altered by external forces.
Asymmetric warfare	Conflict between belligerents whose relative military power differs significantly, often involving non-state actors using unconventional tactics.

Watch Out for These Misconceptions

Common Misconception

Terrorism is primarily a Middle Eastern or Islamic phenomenon.

What to Teach Instead

Terrorism is a global phenomenon that has occurred on every inhabited continent. The Global Terrorism Database documents significant activity in South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Europe, and the Americas. Domestic terrorism , including far-right extremism , is among the most significant threats within the United States. Geographic data mapping helps students see the actual distribution rather than media-reinforced geographic and demographic biases.

Common Misconception

Non-state actors are inherently weaker than states in military and political terms.

What to Teach Instead

Non-state actors can exercise significant power precisely because they are not states , they are not bound by international laws, have no fixed territory to defend, can recruit globally, and can operate across multiple jurisdictions simultaneously. The asymmetry is strategic rather than simply a power deficit. Hezbollah functions as both a political party and a military force with capabilities exceeding many recognized state militaries.

Common Misconception

Eliminating a terrorist organization's physical territory eliminates its capacity to threaten.

What to Teach Instead

ISIS's territorial defeat in 2019 reduced but did not end its capacity for violence. The organization maintained networks, finances, and online recruitment infrastructure that allowed it to continue operating as an insurgent and inspirational force. Analyzing the geographic distinction between holding territory and maintaining influence is one of the key conceptual insights this topic produces.

Active Learning Ideas

Mapping Analysis: The Geographic Spread of Terrorism

Students receive maps showing terrorism incident data across three time periods , pre-2001, 2001 to 2015, and 2015 to present , with data on attack locations, organizational affiliations, and casualty counts. They identify geographic shifts in concentration, the emergence of new regional hubs, and correlations between state fragility and terrorist activity, constructing evidence-based arguments rather than relying on media impressions.

40 min·Pairs

Case Study Analysis: The Geographic Arc of ISIS

Groups trace ISIS territory from 2013 to 2019 using a sequence of maps, analyzing what geographic factors enabled rapid territorial expansion, why holding territory proved so difficult for a non-state actor, and what changed after territorial defeat. Groups must explain specifically why 'defeating' ISIS geographically did not eliminate its capacity for violence or influence.

45 min·Small Groups

Think-Pair-Share: Westphalian System Challenge

Students read a short explanation of the Westphalian system, then a brief case study of a non-state actor that challenges its assumptions , options include Hezbollah, the Houthis, or transnational criminal networks. Pairs identify specifically how the actor violates Westphalian assumptions and what that means for how states can respond legally and militarily under traditional international law frameworks.

25 min·Pairs

Structured Academic Controversy: Drone Warfare Effectiveness

Assign pairs one position: drone strikes are an effective tool for neutralizing non-state actor threats at lower cost and risk, or drone strikes create more radicalization than they eliminate by producing civilian casualties and resentment. Using provided geographic and casualty data, pairs argue their position and then switch sides before synthesizing a shared conclusion grounded in evidence.

50 min·Pairs

Real-World Connections

• Geographers working for international security think tanks analyze satellite imagery and social media data to map the movement and influence of groups like Al-Qaeda or ISIS, informing policy decisions for organizations like the United Nations.
• Urban planners in cities affected by conflict, such as Beirut or Kabul, must consider the impact of non-state actor presence on infrastructure, population displacement, and the provision of essential services like water and electricity.
• Intelligence analysts use geographic information systems (GIS) to track the flow of resources and personnel for transnational criminal networks involved in drug trafficking or human smuggling, impacting border security operations.

Assessment Ideas

Discussion Prompt

Present students with a map showing areas of significant non-state actor activity. Ask: 'How does the presence of these groups challenge the idea of a state's absolute control over its territory? What geographic factors might explain why these groups are active in these specific locations?'

Quick Check

Provide students with a short news excerpt about a non-state actor's action. Ask them to identify: 1. The non-state actor involved. 2. How their actions challenge the Westphalian system. 3. One potential geographic consequence of their actions.

Exit Ticket

On an index card, have students define 'sovereignty' in their own words and then list two ways a non-state actor can undermine a state's sovereignty without controlling territory.

Frequently Asked Questions

How has the geography of terrorism changed in the age of social media?

Social media allows terrorist organizations to recruit globally, spread propaganda instantly, and inspire decentralized attacks by individuals with no direct organizational ties. This changes the geography of terrorism from being concentrated in specific conflict zones to being potentially anywhere that connected individuals live. It also creates new counter-terrorism challenges around content moderation, encryption, and jurisdictional authority over digital platforms that cross all national borders.

What is the Westphalian system and how do non-state actors challenge it?

The Westphalian system, originating from the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, holds that sovereign states are the primary actors in international relations, each with exclusive control over its own territory. Non-state actors challenge this by crossing borders freely, controlling territory without formal sovereignty, and projecting power through networks rather than armies. States struggle to apply laws designed for state-to-state conflict to actors who are deliberately stateless and ungovernable.

What are the geographic consequences of the War on Terror?

The War on Terror reshaped geographies of military presence, refugee flows, and state fragility across the Middle East, Central Asia, and Africa. US and allied military interventions in Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Somalia, and elsewhere created new power vacuums and displaced millions of people. The counterterrorism focus also shifted diplomatic and military attention in ways that affected US relationships with both allies and rivals globally.

How does active learning help students study terrorism objectively?

Terrorism is emotionally and politically charged, and students bring significant preconceptions shaped by media and personal experience. Active learning approaches like geographic data analysis and structured controversy require students to work with evidence , casualty data, incident locations, organizational network maps , rather than emotional responses or ideological frameworks. This grounds discussion in geography and documented history rather than assumption.