Class 12 Philosophy

Students will define knowledge and differentiate it from belief and opinion, exploring initial philosophical questions.

Students will compare and contrast rationalist and empiricist views on the primary source of knowledge (reason vs. experience).

Analysis of direct perception as a valid source of knowledge in Indian philosophy, focusing on its types and limitations.

Examining inference as a structured process of deriving new knowledge from existing knowledge, with examples.

Exploring the role of verbal testimony and analogical reasoning in acquiring knowledge, especially in cultural contexts.

Investigating two additional pramanas: postulation (presumption) and non-apprehension (absence) as sources of knowledge.

Investigating the Carvaka school's radical empiricism and its critique of non-perceptual sources of knowledge.

Examining René Descartes' systematic doubt as a method to establish certain knowledge, leading to 'Cogito, ergo sum'.

Exploring philosophical arguments concerning the existence of a reality independent of our minds, and responses to skepticism.

Understanding the Buddhist concept of emptiness and its implications for the nature of reality and knowledge.

Examining the idea that truth consists in a statement's agreement with reality, and its challenges.

Investigating the view that truth is determined by a statement's consistency within a system of beliefs.

Exploring the idea that truth is what works or is useful in practice, focusing on its practical implications.

Analyzing Edmund Gettier's challenge to the traditional definition of knowledge as justified true belief.

Students will explore the fundamental debate between universal moral truths and culturally determined ethics.

Understanding the multifaceted concept of Dharma as cosmic law, moral duty, and righteous living in Indian thought.

Exploring the traditional concept of Varnasrama Dharma and its implications for social roles and responsibilities.

Understanding the Bhagavad Gita's teaching on selfless action and its role in achieving spiritual liberation and moral purity.

Examining the four aims of human life in Hinduism: Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha, and their ethical balance.

Examining Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill's consequentialist ethics, focusing on maximizing overall happiness.

Studying Immanuel Kant's duty-based ethics, emphasizing universal moral laws and the inherent worth of individuals.

Exploring Aristotle's focus on character, virtues, and the pursuit of eudaimonia (flourishing) as the aim of ethics.

Investigating the ethics of care, which emphasizes relationships, empathy, and context over abstract rules or consequences.

Applying ethical frameworks to issues of environmental degradation, animal rights, and sustainability.

Examining philosophical perspectives on fairness in resource distribution, opportunities, and rights within society.

Exploring the ethical dilemmas posed by emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence, privacy, and automation.

Applying ethical principles to complex issues in medicine and biology, such as euthanasia, cloning, and genetic engineering.

Students will define metaphysics and explore fundamental questions about existence, time, and space.

Exploring the Vedantic concept of Atman as the eternal, unchanging essence of the individual.

Understanding Brahman as the supreme, all-pervading reality in Vedanta, and its relationship to the universe.

Examining the concept of Jiva as the individual soul bound by karma and its journey through samsara.

Exploring the concept of Maya in Advaita Vedanta as the illusory nature of the phenomenal world.

Analyzing René Descartes' substance dualism and other theories proposing a distinct mind and body.

Exploring theories that reduce mental states to physical states of the brain, such as identity theory.

Investigating the nature of subjective experience (qualia) and the 'hard problem' of consciousness.

Examining philosophical theories of personal identity over time, including psychological and bodily continuity.

Examining the theory that the effect pre-exists in its cause, as proposed by the Samkhya-Yoga schools.

Understanding the theory that the effect is a new production, not pre-existing in the cause, from Nyaya-Vaisheshika.

Exploring the philosophical concept of Karma as the law of cause and effect governing moral actions and rebirth.

Students will define logic, identify arguments, and distinguish between premises and conclusions.

Comparing deductive arguments (guaranteeing conclusions) with inductive arguments (making conclusions probable).

Introduction to the four types of categorical propositions (Universal Affirmative, Universal Negative, etc.) and their structure.

Understanding the logical relationships (contradiction, contrariety, subalternation) between categorical propositions.

Introduction to the structure of categorical syllogisms and methods for testing their validity (e.g., Venn Diagrams).

Identifying common informal fallacies where premises are logically irrelevant to the conclusion (e.g., Ad Hominem, Appeal to Emotion).

Exploring fallacies where premises are relevant but provide insufficient support for the conclusion (e.g., Hasty Generalization, Appeal to Authority).

Identifying fallacies arising from unclear language (e.g., Equivocation) or unwarranted assumptions (e.g., Begging the Question).

Using symbols to represent logical connectives (AND, OR, NOT, IF...THEN) and constructing truth tables to evaluate statements.

Differentiating between statements that are always true (tautologies), always false (contradictions), and sometimes true (contingencies).

Introduction to basic rules of inference (e.g., Modus Ponens, Modus Tollens) used to construct formal proofs of validity.

Students will define political philosophy and explore fundamental questions about legitimate power and governance.

Examining Thomas Hobbes's view of the state of nature as a 'war of all against all' and the necessity of a strong sovereign.

Studying John Locke's theory of natural rights (life, liberty, property) and government by consent.

Exploring Jean-Jacques Rousseau's ideas on the social contract, the general will, and direct democracy.

Evaluating John Rawls's theory of justice, including the original position and the two principles of justice.

Examining Robert Nozick's libertarian critique of redistributive justice and his defense of a minimal state.

Examining the unique features of Indian secularism, including principled distance and state intervention in religious affairs.

Exploring the philosophical foundations of democracy, its various forms, and inherent challenges.

Investigating feminist critiques of traditional philosophy and the analysis of gender, power, and social structures.

Students will define philosophy of religion and explore the relationship between religious belief and rational inquiry.

Analyzing Anselm's argument that God's existence can be proven from the very concept of God as a perfect being.

Examining arguments that infer God's existence from the existence of the universe (e.g., First Cause, Contingency).

Studying arguments that infer God's existence from the apparent design and order in the universe.

Analyzing the logical and evidential forms of the problem of evil, challenging the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God.

Exploring various philosophical and theological attempts to reconcile the existence of evil with God's attributes (e.g., Free Will Defense, Soul-Making).

Introduction to existentialist themes of meaninglessness, freedom, and responsibility in a world without inherent purpose.

Studying Jean-Paul Sartre's core idea that humans are defined by their choices and are 'condemned to be free'.

Exploring Albert Camus's response to the absurd through revolt, freedom, and passion, finding meaning in the struggle itself.

Examining Søren Kierkegaard's focus on individual existence, the leap of faith, and the experience of anxiety.